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Jammu and Kashmir (/ˈdʒæmuː, ˈdʒʌmuː/ and /kæʃˈmɪər, ˈkæʃmɪər/(listen)^[19]) is a state in India, located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent, and a part of the larger region of Kashmir, which has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since 1947.^[20][21] The underlying region of this state was the southern and eastern part of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, whose western districts, now known as Azad Kashmir, and northern territories, now known as Gilgit-Baltistan, are administered by Pakistan.^{[note 2]} The Aksai Chin region in the east, bordering Tibet, has been under Chinese control since 1962.

After the Government of India repealed the special status accorded to Jammu and Kashmir under Article 370 of the Indian constitution, the Parliament of India passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, which seeks to dissolve the state and reorganise it into two union territories – Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.^[27] The act will come into effect from 31 October 2019. Jammu and Kashmir is the only state in India with a Muslim-majority population. Muslims constitute 68.31% of the state's population, Hindus 28.43%, Sikhs 1.87% and Buddhists 0.89%.

• 1History
• 2Administrative divisions
• 4Demographics
• 6Economy

History

Establishment

After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948, India administered the regions of Jammu, Kashmir Valley and Ladakh of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, while Pakistan administered Gilgit–Baltistan and Azad Kashmir. The Indian-administered territories became the state of Jammu and Kashmir in 1952. The eastern region of the erstwhile state was beset with a boundary dispute with China. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the northeast portion of Ladakh.^[28] By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962.^[29] China has administered Aksai Chin since 1962 and, in addition, an adjoining region, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963.

The Chenab formula was a compromise proposed in the 1960s, in which the Kashmir valley and other Muslim-dominated areas north of the Chenab river would go to Pakistan, and Jammu and other Hindu-dominated regions would go to India.^[30] Diplomatic relations between India and Pakistan soured for many other reasons and resulted in three further wars in Kashmir: the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971 and the Kargil War in 1999. Following the war in 1971, the countries reached the Simla Agreement, agreeing on a Line of Control between their respective regions and committing to a peaceful resolution of the dispute through bilateral negotiations.^[31]

For intermittent periods between 1957, when the state approved its own Constitution,^[32] and the death of Sheikh Abdullah in 1982, the state had alternating spells of stability and discontent. In the late 1980s, however, simmering discontent over the high-handed policies of the Union Government^[33] and allegations of the rigging of the 1987 assembly elections^[33] triggered a violent uprising which was backed by Pakistan.^[34] Since then, the region has seen a prolonged, bloody conflict between separatists and the Indian Army, both of whom have been accused of widespread human rights abuses, including abductions, massacres, rapes and armed robbery.^{[note 3]} The army has officially denied these allegations.^[45]

Separatist insurgency and militancy since 1989

In 1989, a widespread popular and armed insurgency^[46][47] started in Kashmir. After the 1987 state legislative assembly election, some of the results were disputed. This resulted in the formation of militant wings and marked the beginning of the Mujahadeen insurgency, which continues to this day.^[48] India contends that the insurgency was largely started by Afghan mujahadeen who entered the Kashmir valley following the end of the Soviet–Afghan War.^[49]Yasin Malik, a leader of one faction of the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front, was one of the Kashmiris to organise militancy in Kashmir, along with Ashfaq Majid Wani and Farooq Ahmed Dar (alias Bitta Karate). Since 1995, Malik has renounced the use of violence and calls for strictly peaceful methods to resolve the dispute. Malik developed differences with one of the senior leaders, Farooq Siddiqui (alias Farooq Papa), for shunning demands for an independent Kashmir and trying to cut a deal with the Indian Prime Minister. This resulted in a split in which Bitta Karate, Salim Nanhaji, and other senior comrades joined Farooq Papa.^[50][51]

Pakistan claims these insurgents are Jammu and Kashmir citizens and are rising up against the Indian army as part of an independence movement. Amnesty International has accused security forces in Indian-controlled Kashmir of exploiting an Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act that enables them to 'hold prisoners without trial'. The group argues that the law, which allows security forces to detain individuals for up to two years without presenting charges violates prisoners' human rights.^[52][53] In 2011, the state humans right commission said it had evidence that 2,156 bodies had been buried in 40 graves over the last 20 years.^[53] The authorities deny such accusations. The security forces say the unidentified dead are militants who may have originally come from outside India. They also say that many of the missing people have crossed into Pakistan-administered Kashmir to engage in militancy.^[53] However, according to the state human rights commission, among the identified bodies 574 were those of 'disappeared locals', and according to Amnesty International's annual human rights report (2012) it was sufficient for 'belying the security forces' claim that they were militants'.^[54]

Separatist sentiments in the region had been observed to decline.^[55] Violence in the state declined for a period after 2004 with the peace process between India and Pakistan.^[56] However, following the unrest in 2008, which included more than 500,000 protesters at a rally on 18 August, secessionist movements gained a boost.^[57][58] Further the 2016–17 Kashmir unrest culminated in the deaths of more than 90 civilians,^[59] with over 15,000 civilians injured.^[60]

The 2009 edition of the Freedom in the World Report by the US-based NGOFreedom House rated Jammu and Kashmir as 'Partly Free',^[61] while in comparison, the same report rated Pakistan-administered Kashmir as 'Not Free.'^[62] However, in the same report the Political rights and Civil liberties scored 6 and 5 respectively for Azad Kashmir^[62] while as for Jammu and Kashmir^[61] the scores were 5 and 4 respectively.

After dominating Kashmir's politics for years, the National Conference's influence waned in 2002, when INC and PDP formed a political alliance and rose to power.^[63] Under the power-sharing agreement, INC leader Ghulam Nabi Azad replaced PDP's Mufti Mohammad Sayeed as the Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir in late 2005. However, in 2008, PDP withdrew its support from the government on the issue of temporary diversion of nearly 40 acres (16 ha) of land to the Sri Amarnath Shrine Board.^[64] In the 2008 Kashmir Elections that were held from 17 November to 24 December, the National Conference party and the Congress party together won enough seats in the state assembly to form a ruling alliance.^[65]

In the 2014 election, the voter turnout was recorded at 65% – the highest in the history of the state. The results gave a fractured mandate to either parties – the PDP won 28 seats, BJP 25, NC 15 and INC 12. After 2 months of deliberations and president's rule, the BJP and the PDP announced an agreement for a coalition government, and PDP patron Mufti Mohammad Sayeed was sworn-in as CM for a second term, with Nirmal Singh of the BJP sworn-in as deputy CM. This also marked the first time in 35 years that the BJP was a coalition partner in the state government. In 2018, the state came under President's rule.^[3]

Six policemen, including a sub-inspector were killed in an ambush by militants in Anantnag, Jammu and Kashmir on 15 June 2017, by trespassing militants of the Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Toiba. 116 illegal trespassing cases along the India-Pak border in Jammu and Kashmir were reported in 2015 and 2016, including 88 in 2016. A total of 59 Army personnel have lost their lives in counter-terror operations in J&K since 2016.^[66] An attack on an Indian police convoy on the Jammu-Srinagar National Highway, Pulwama, in February 2019, resulted in the deaths of 40 police officers. Responsibility for the attack was claimed by a Pakistan-backed millitant group.^[67]

Repeal of Article 370 and reorganisation act

The Bharatiya Janata Party came to power in the 2014 Indian general election, and five years later included in their 2019 election manifesto the revocation of Article 370 and Article 35A of the Constitution of India.^[68] In August 2019, both houses of the Parliament of India passed resolutions to change the constitutional status of Jammu and Kashmir, which allowed the President of India to make a constitutional order to officially amend Article 370 and extend the application of the Constitution of India in its entirety to the state.^{[69][70][71][72]}

K J 121017l Exe Free

As a precautionary measure, the central government locked down the Kashmir Valley, with a surge in security forces, imposition of Section 144 preventing assembly, and placing political leaders under house arrest.^[73] The imposing of restrictions included the blocking of internet and phone services.^[74][75] Politicians, such as former Jammu and Kashmir chief ministers Omar Abdullah and Mehbooba Mufti were put under house arrest.^[76]

At the same time, the parliament also passed the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019, which would dismiss the state of Jammu and Kashmir and bifurcate it into union territories: the eponymous union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, and that of Ladakh. Ladakh will administer the districts of Leh and Kargil, while the other 20 districts would be accorded to Jammu and Kashmir.^[77] The new union territory of Jammu and Kashmir will have an elected legislative assembly, cabinet and chief minister, with competencies in all areas of the state list except public order and policing.^[78] The bill was passed by both houses of parliament and was assented to by the President of India on 9 August 2019.^[79] The new structure will come into effect on 31 October 2019.^[80]

Administrative divisions

Jammu and Kashmir consists of three divisions: Jammu, Kashmir Valley and Ladakh, and is further divided into 22 districts.^[81] The Siachen Glacier, while under Indian military control, does not lie under the administration of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Kishtwar, Ramban, Reasi, Samba, Bandipora, Ganderbal, Kulgam and Shopian were districts formed in 2008, and their areas are included with those of the districts from which they were formed.^[81]

Urban Local Bodies (ULB)

Municipal corporations: 2 – Srinagar, Jammu

Municipal councils: 6 – Udhampur, Kathua, Poonch, Anantnag, Baramulla, Sopore

Municipal Committees: 70 – Akhnoor, Gho Manhasan, Bishnah, Arnia, RS Pura, Khour, Jourian, Samba, Vijaypur, Bari Brahmana, Ramgarh, Hiranagar, Basohli, Lakhenpur, Billawar, Parole, Rajouri, Sunderbani, Kalakote, Nowshera, Thanamandi, Kishtwar, Chenani, Ramnagar, Katra, Reasi, Doda, Thathri, Bhaderwah, Ramban, Batote, Banihal, Surankote, Achabal, Bijbehara, Kokernag, Mattan, Quazigund, Aishmuquam, Seer Hamdan, Verinag, Kulgam, Devsar, Yaripora, Frisal, Pulwama, Pampore, Tral, Khrew, Awantipora, Shopian, Ganderbal, Budgam, Khansahib, Magam, Beerwah, Chadoora, Charari Sharief, Kunzer, Pattan, Uri, Watergam, Bandipora, Sumbal, Hajin, Kupwara, Handwara, Langate, Leh, Kargil.^[82]

Geography

Because of Jammu and Kashmir's wide range of elevations, its biogeography is diverse. Northwestern thorn scrub forests and Himalayan subtropical pine forests are found in the low elevations of the far southwest. These give way to a broad band of western Himalayan broadleaf forests running from northwest-southeast across the Kashmir Valley. Rising into the mountains, the broadleaf forests grade into western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests. Above the tree line are found northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. Much of the northeast of the state is covered by the Karakoram-West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe.

Demographics

Languages of Jammu and Kashmir (2011)^[85]

The major ethnic groups living in Jammu and Kashmir include Kashmiris, Gujjars/Bakarwals, Paharis, Dogras and Ladakhis.^[86] The Kashmiris live mostly in the main valley of Kashmir and Chenab valley of Jammu division with a minority living in the Pir Panjal region. The Pahari-speaking people mostly live in and around the Pir Panjal region with some in the northern Kashmir valley. The nomadic Gujjars and Bakerwals practice transhumance and mostly live in the Pirpanjal region. The Dogras are ethnically, linguistically and culturally related to the neighboring Punjabi people and mostly live in the Udhampur and Jammu districts of the state. The Ladakhis inhabit Ladakh region.

Jammu's Dogra culture and tradition was very similar to that of the neighboring Punjab and Himachal Pradesh states; traditional Punjabi festivals such as Lohri and Vaisakhi were celebrated throughout the region, along with Accession Day, an annual holiday which commemorates the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to the Union of India.^[87] The Meeras Mahal in Noor Bagh, near Sopore, founded by Atiqa Bano, holds the material and artistic heritage of the common folk.^[88]

In Jammu and Kashmir, the principal spoken languages are Kashmiri, Urdu, Dogri, Hindi, Punjabi, Pahari, Balti, Ladakhi, Gojri, Shina and Pashto. However, Urdu written in the Persian script is the official language of the state. Hindustani is widely understood by peoples. Many speakers of these languages use Urdu or English as a second language.^[89]

Urdu occupies a central space in media, education, religious and political discourses, and the legislature of Jammu and Kashmir. The language is said to function as a symbol of identity among Muslims of South Asia.^[90] Additionally, as the language is regarded as a 'neutral' and non-native language of the multilingual region, its acceptance was broadly accepted by Kashmiri Muslims.^[91] The use of Urdu as the official language of Jammu and Kashmir has also been criticised by Rajeshwari V. Pandharipandeof the University of Illinois on the basis that the language is spoken as a native language by less than 1% of the population, and has rendered Kashmiri, spoken by 53% of the population, into a functional 'minority language,' effectively restricting its use to home and family.^[92][93]

Dogras (67%) are the single largest group in the multi-ethnic region of Jammu living with Punjabis, Kashmiris, Paharis, Bakerwals and Gujjars. Statehood is demanded in Hindu-dominated districts. Ladakh is the largest region in the state with over 200,000 people. Its two districts are Leh (68% Buddhist) and Kargil (91% Muslim population).^[94]

Religion

Religion in Jammu And Kashmir (2011)^[95]

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Jammu and Kashmir is the only Indian state with a Muslim majority population.^[96] It consists of three regions: (a) the Kashmir Valley, which accounts for 54.9% of the population of Jammu and Kashmir, and 15.7% of the area; 96.4% of the Valley's population is Muslim; (b) the Jammu Division, which accounts for 42.9% of the population of Jammu and Kashmir, and 25.9% of its area; 62.5% of Jammu's population is Hindu, and 33.5% Muslim; (c) and Ladakh, which accounts for 2.8% of the population of Jammu and Kashmir and 58.4% of its area; Muslims constitute 46.6% of the population of Ladakh, Buddhists 39.7%, and Hindus, 12.1%. Overall, in the state, Muslims constitute 68.31% of the population, Hindus 28.43%, Sikhs 1.87% and Buddhists 0.89%.^[95] According to the 2011 census, Islam is practised by about 68.3% of the state population,^[97] while 28.4% follow Hinduism and small minorities follow Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.9%) and Christianity (0.3%).^[95] About 96.4% of the population of the Kashmir valley are Muslim followed by Hindus (2.45%) and Sikhs (0.98%) and others (0.17%)^[98] Shias live in the district of Badgam, where they are a majority.^[99] The Shia population is estimated to comprise 14% of the state's population.^[100]

In Jammu, Hindus constitute 62.55% of the population, Muslims 33.45% and Sikhs, 3.3%; In Ladakh (comprises Buddhists-dominated Leh and Shia Muslim-dominated Kargil), Muslims constitute about 46.4% of the population, the remaining being Buddhists (39.7%) and Hindus (12.1%).^[98] The people of Ladakh are of Indo-Tibetan origin, while the southern area of Jammu includes many communities tracing their ancestry to the nearby Indian states of Haryana and Punjab, as well as the city of Delhi.

According to political scientist Alexander Evans, approximately 99% of the total population of 160,000–170,000 of Kashmiri Brahmins, also called Kashmiri Pandits, (i.e. approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990 as militancy engulfed the state.^[101] According to an estimate by the Central Intelligence Agency, about 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir have been internally displaced due to the ongoing violence.^[102]

The pre-independence Census of 1941 recorded Muslims as constituting 72.41% of the population, and Hindus 25.01%. In the 1961 census, the first one to be conducted after the partition of the State, Muslims constituted 68.31% of the population and Hindus 28.45%. The proportion of Muslims fell to 64.19% by 1981 but recovered afterward, reaching 68.31% again by 2011.^[103]

Jammu province region has a 70:30 Hindu-Muslim ratio. Parts of the region were hit by militants, but violence has ebbed there, along with the Valley, after India and Pakistan started a peace process in 2004.^[94]

Government

Jammu and Kashmir was the only state in India which enjoyed special autonomy under Article 370 of the Constitution of India, according to which no law enacted by the Parliament of India, except for those in the field of defence, communication and foreign policy, would be extendable in Jammu and Kashmir unless it was ratified by the state legislature of Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequently, jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India over Jammu and Kashmir was extended.^[106]

Jammu and Kashmir was the only Indian state to have its own official state flag, along with India's national flag,^[107] in addition to a separate constitution. Indians from other states could not purchase land or property in the state.^[108] Designed by the then ruling National Conference, the flag of Jammu and Kashmir featured a plough on a red background symbolising labour; it replaced the Maharaja's state flag. The three stripes represented the three distinct administrative divisions of the state, namely Jammu, Valley of Kashmir, and Ladakh.^[109]

In 1990, an Armed Forces Act, which gave special powers to the Indian security forces, was enforced in Jammu and Kashmir.^[110] The decision to invoke this act was criticised by the Human Rights Watch.^[111] Amnesty International also strongly condemned the implementation of this Act that granted virtual immunity to security forces from prosecution.^[112] Minar Pimple, Senior Director of Global Operations at Amnesty International stated in 2015 that none of the security forces deployed in the state were charged for right violations.^[113]

Like all the states of India, Jammu and Kashmir has a multi-party democratic system of governance with a bicameral legislature. At the time of drafting the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir, 100 seats were earmarked for direct elections from territorial constituencies. Of these, 25 seats were reserved for the areas of Jammu and Kashmir state that came under Pakistani occupation; this was reduced to 24 after the 12th amendment of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.^[114] After a delimitation in 1988, the total number of seats increased to 111, of which 87 were within Indian-administered territory.^[115] The Jammu and Kashmir Assembly was the only state in India to have a 6-year term, in contrast to the norm of a 5-year term followed in every other state's Assembly.^[116] In 2005, it was reported that the INC Government would amend the term to bring parity with the other states.^[117]

Economy

Jammu and Kashmir's economy is predominantly dependent on agriculture and related activities.^[121] Horticulture plays a vital role in the economic development of the state, with a turnover of over ₹3 billion (US$43 million) in 2009, apart from foreign exchange of over ₹800 million (US$12 million).^[122] The region of Kashmir is known for its horticulture industry^[123] and is the wealthiest region in the state.^[124] Horticultural produce from the state includes apples, apricots, cherries, pears, plums, almonds and walnuts.^[122]

The Doda district, rich in high-grade sapphire, had active mines until the 1989 insurgency; in 1998, the government discovered that smugglers had occupied these mines and stolen much of the resource.^[125] In 2008, the Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM) identified several industrial sectors which could attract investment in the state.^[126] In the fiscal year 2005–06, exports from the state amounted to ₹11.5 billion (US$170 million).^[127] However, industrial development in the state faces several major constraints including extreme mountainous landscape and power shortage.^[128] The Jammu & Kashmir Bank, which is listed as a S&P CNX 500 conglomerate, is based in the state. It reported a net profit of ₹598 million (US$8.7 million) in 2008.^[129] The state is one of the largest recipients of grants from New Delhi, totalling US$812 million per year.^[130] In 2002, it had a 4 percent incidence of poverty, one of the lowest in the country.^[130]

Vaishno Devi temple located in Jammu is the most visited place in state.^[131] Before the insurgency intensified in 1989, tourism formed an important part of the Kashmiri economy. The tourism economy in the Kashmir valley was worst hit. However, the holy shrines of Jammu and the Buddhist monasteries of Ladakh continued to remain popular pilgrimage and tourism destinations. Every year, thousands of Hindupilgrims visit holy shrines of Vaishno Devi and Amarnath, which has had significant impact on the state's economy.^[132] It was estimated in 2007 that the Vaishno Devi yatra contributed ₹4.75 billion (US$69 million) to the local economy annually until a few years ago.^[133] In 2013, the British government still advised against all travel to Jammu and Kashmir with the exception of the cities of Jammu and Srinagar, travel between these two cities on the Jammu-Srinagar highway, and the region of Ladakh.^[134]

Tourism in the Kashmir valley rebounded in later years, and in 2009, the state became one of the top tourist destinations of India.^[135]Gulmarg, one of the most popular ski resort destinations in India, is also home to the world's highest green golf course.^[136] The state's recent decrease in violence has boosted the economy and tourism.^[137] It was reported that more than a million tourists visited Kashmir in 2011.^{[138][139][140]} During 2016–17 Kashmir unrest, Kashmir Valley witnessed drastic decline in Tourism with only 850,000 tourists visiting the Valley in 2018, while on the other hand the Jammu region of the state flourished with highest number of tourist visiting the state crossing the numbers over 16 million.^[131] In 2016, the state's GDP was ₹1,323 million (US$19 million).^[141]

Agriculture

Given below is a table of 2015 national output share of select agricultural crops and allied segments in Jammu and Kashmir based on 2011 prices:^[142]

See also

Notes

1. ^Jammu and Kashmir is a disputed territory between India, Pakistan and China. The areas of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan administered by Pakistan and Aksai Chin region administered by China are included in the total area.
2. ^The Government of Pakistan and Pakistan sources refer to Jammu amd Kashmir as 'Indian-occupied Kashmir' ('IOK') or 'Indian-held Kashmir' (IHK);^[22][23] 'Indian-administered Kashmir' and 'Indian-controlled Kashmir' are used by neutral sources.^[24] Indian sources call the territory under Pakistan control 'Pakistan-occupied Kashmir' ('POK') or 'Pakistan-held Kashmir' ('PHK').^[25][26]
3. ^Sources that detail human right abuses in Jammu and Kashmir.^{[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44]}

References

1. ^Desk, The Hindu Net (8 May 2017). 'What is the Darbar Move in J&K all about?'. The Hindu. Archived from the original on 10 November 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
2. ^'Satya Pal Malik sworn in as Jammu and Kashmir governor'. The Economic Times. Press Trust of India. 23 August 2018. Archived from the original on 23 August 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018.
3. ^ ^ab'BJP-PDP alliance ends in Jammu and Kashmir LIVE updates: Mehbooba Mufti resigns as chief minister; Governor's Rule in state'. Firstpost. 19 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
4. ^'Saltoro Kangri, India/Pakistan'. peakbagger.com. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
5. ^'Jammu and Kashmir Budget Analysis 2018-19'. PRSIndia. 19 January 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2019.
6. ^'Sub-national HDI – Area Database'. Global Data Lab. Institute for Management Research, Radboud University. Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
7. ^ ^ab'Report of the Commissioner for linguistic minorities: 50th report (July 2012 to June 2013)'(PDF). Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India. p. 49. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 July 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
8. ^Khan, N. (6 August 2012). The Parchment of Kashmir: History, Society, and Polity. Springer. p. 184. ISBN9781137029584. Archived from the original on 23 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
9. ^Aggarwal, J. C.; Agrawal, S. P. (1995). Modern History of Jammu and Kashmir: Ancient times to Shimla Agreement. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN9788170225577. Archived from the original on 24 February 2019. Retrieved 23 February 2019.
10. ^Zangskari.
11. ^Bhadrawahi.
12. ^Purik.
13. ^Shakspo, Nawang Tsering (2005). 'Tibetan (Bhoti)—An Endangered Script in Trans-Himalaya'. The Tibet Journal. 30. Library of Tibetan Works and Archives. pp. 61–64. ISSN0970-5368. JSTOR43301113.
14. ^Bateri.
15. ^Crane, Robert I. (1956). Area Handbook on Jammu and Kashmir State. University of Chicago for the Human Relations Area Files. p. 179. Shina is the most eastern of these languages and in some of its dialects such as the Brokpa of Dah and Hanu and the dialect of Dras, it impinges upon the area of the Sino-Tibetan language family and has been affected by Tibetan with an overlay of words and idioms.
16. ^Pakistan's 'Burushaski' Language Finds New Relatives.
17. ^Brokskat.
18. ^Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (2017). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twentieth Edition. Dallas: SIL International.
19. ^Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach; James Hartmann; Jane Setter (eds.), English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN978-3-12-539683-8
20. ^Akhtar, Rais; Kirk, William, Jammu and Kashmir, State, India, Encyclopaedia Britannica, retrieved 7 August 2019 (subscription required) Quote: 'Jammu and Kashmir, state of India, located in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the vicinity of the Karakoram and westernmost Himalayan mountain ranges. The state is part of the larger region of Kashmir, which has been the subject of dispute between India, Pakistan, and China since the partition of the subcontinent in 1947.'
21. ^Jan·Osma鈔czyk, Edmund; Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan (2003), Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements: G to M, Taylor & Francis, pp. 1191–, ISBN978-0-415-93922-5 Quote: 'Jammu and Kashmir: Territory in northwestern India, subject to a dispute between India and Pakistan. It has borders with Pakistan and China.'
22. ^Ali Zain (13 September 2015). 'Pakistani flag hoisted, pro-freedom slogans chanted in Indian Occupied Kashmir – Daily Pakistan Global'. En.dailypakistan.com.pk. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
23. ^ (11 September 2015). 'Pakistani flag hoisted once again in Indian Occupied Kashmir World Dunya News'. Dunyanews.tv. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
24. ^South Asia: fourth report of session 2006–07 by By Great Britain: Parliament: House of Commons: Foreign Affairs Committee page 37
25. ^Snedden, Christopher (2013). Kashmir: The Unwritten History. HarperCollins India. pp. 2–3. ISBN978-9350298985.
26. ^The enigma of terminologyArchived 16 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Hindu, 27 January 2014.
27. ^'Jammu Kashmir Article 370: Govt revokes Article 370 from Jammu and Kashmir, bifurcates state into two Union Territories'. The Times of India. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
28. ^'Kashmir – region, Indian subcontinent'. Archived from the original on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
29. ^'Kashmir region, Indian subcontinent'. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 8 November 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
30. ^'The Future of Kashmir?'. BBC News. Archived from the original on 5 August 2010. Retrieved 2 February 2010.
31. ^'Kashmir Fast Facts'. CNN. Retrieved 12 January 2019.
32. ^Schofield 2003, p. 94
33. ^ ^abSchofield 2003, p. 137
34. ^Schofield 2003, p. 210
35. ^Billal A. Jan (Director) (2012). Ocean of Tears (Excerpt) (YouTube). Jammu and Kashmir: PSBTIndia.External link in title= (help)
36. ^'India: 'Everyone Lives in Fear': Patterns of Impunity in Jammu and Kashmir: I. Summary'. Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 22 May 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
37. ^'India and Human Rights in Kashmir – The Myth – India Together'. Archived from the original on 9 May 2006. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
38. ^Schofield 2003, pp. 148, 158
39. ^'India: 'Everyone Lives in Fear': Patterns of Impunity in Jammu and Kashmir: VI. Militant Abuses'. Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
40. ^'Kashmir troops held after rape'. BBC News. 19 April 2002. Archived from the original on 18 December 2008. Retrieved 2 June 2008.
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Sources

• Korbel, Josef (1953), 'The Kashmir dispute after six years', International Organization, 7 (4): 498–510, doi:10.1017/S0020818300007256
• Korbel, Josef (1966) [first published 1954], Danger in Kashmir (second ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN9781400875238
• Schofield, Victoria (2003), Kashmir in Conflict, I.B.Tauris, ISBN978-1-86064-898-4
• Snedden, Christopher (3 May 2003), Kashmir – The Untold Story, India: HarperCollins Publishers
• Varshney, Ashutosh (1992), 'Three Compromised Nationalisms: Why Kashmir has been a Problem'(PDF), in Raju G. C. Thomas (ed.), Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia, Westview Press, pp. 191–234, ISBN978-0-8133-8343-9

Further reading

• Bose, Sumantra (2003), Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, Harvard University Press, ISBN978-0-674-01173-1
• Rai, Mridu (2004), Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir, C. Hurst & Co, ISBN978-1850656616

External links

Government

General information

• Jammu and KashmirEncyclopædia Britannica entry
• Jammu and Kashmir at Curlie
• Geographic data related to Jammu and Kashmir at OpenStreetMap